POLICY EVALUATION OF RELIGIOUS SCHOOL FUNDING

A Brief History

A landmark decision was just handed down on June 30, 2020, by the United States Supreme Court. In the matter of Montana Department of Revenue v. Espinoza (U. S. Supreme Court, 2020), The Court ruled in favor of Espinoza that states determining to help fund private schools must include religious schools in that funding (deVogue, & Cole, 2020). Schools may still take the extreme route of not helping any private schools at all; otherwise, this is a huge victory for religious education, and for funding through taxpayer dollars. The ongoing battle for control of student education will no doubt continue into the future of educational policy writing; however, this important step will have implications at the federal, state, and local levels. 

Private education has long been at the forefront of the education desires of many Americans. In fact, there has been a significant move recently to privatize education and move away completely from public education. But the early push for school vouchers and privatization goes back to a push for Christian values in education. Religious beliefs were tied to moral living (and rightly so). They could be found in almost all education. Yet eventually the push to separate religion from government became the practice of the land. In a push back, people began desiring private education where their virtues and values could be promulgated above that of the public-school systems. Gradually, through the mid to late 1900’s, religion was completely removed from public schools (Forman, J., Jr., 2007). Ever since the Christian family has pushed for a return to the values that are attributed to Christianity, and as not being present in public schools and their curriculum. Additionally, the finances of the public-school system continue to be the albatross in the room, showing glaring omissions and lacking funding for adequate quality education (Owings & Kaplan, 2019). Teacher morale is down, and the desire to develop professionally is not evident, nor are there funds to support it. This is all in the face of growing discontent in public school education, and a move to private schools. 

Because of this discontent, people began to explore charter schools. There was a need for alternative methods of education, differing from traditional public schools in methodology. The charter school movement, “allow communities to create new public schools outside traditional structures” (Geheb, & Owens, 2019, p. 78). They also provided a sense of exploration to the education world that seemed to appeal to many. While these schools grew in popularity, there remained a demand for virtues-driven religious education. The Christian school had been an alternative for quite some time, but it grew in popularity as more and more religious freedoms were taken away from individuals. It is no surprise that this ruling from the U.S. Supreme Court is being hailed as a triumph for the religious rights of many. 

Federal Implications

Like all education policy at the federal level, the ramifications have been felt in the political party shift in the last four years. Over 200 federal judges have been confirmed to lifetime seats on various court benches, including two U.S. Supreme Court justices appointed by a republican U.S. president and Republican-help U.S. Senate. These judges are, of course, above party politics; however, their ideological leanings in how to interpret the U.S. Constitution have been supposedly ascertained through vetting of prior rulings and commentaries. Betsy DeVos, U.S. Secretary for Education, also has shown a proclivity for privatization of the education system, as she feels leans towards competition in the education world. 

The ruling by the Supreme Court opens the door at the state level where education decisions are currently made, but it also fortifies a position at the federal level that is beginning to show a pattern of upholding the freedom of religion in various areas of society. In 2019 the Court ruled in favor of allowing a large cross to remain on government land (Wolf, 2020), and in 2017 the Court ruled a Missouri Lutheran church could receive federal funds to pave their grounds (Wolf, 2020). This trend can bolster lawmakers as they wrestle with policy writing, and certainly it can give Betsy DeVos the fodder she needs to kindle new policy at the Department of Education. In thinking about how policy is enacted at the federal level, it truly is far fetched to imagine lots of rapid change and new laws. This is not the way the bicameral system is designed to run, as it should be difficult to pass law that impacts all the states. Legislators have entire departments and teams that work to write policy that eventually will be presented to congress, and it usually must be written in such a way to pass a bipartisan house and senate vote. The much easier route to policy implementation is at the state level. 

State Implications

Education policy at the state level has the potential for immediate implications due to the Supreme Court ruling on funding for nonpublic religious schools. While the ruling was against Montana, The Supreme Court has in effect told every other state that they cannot withhold funds from religious schools simply because of their religious values and teaching (Williams, 2020). This puts states in a difficult position to either cancel all financial assistance to private schools, or to ask state taxpayers to give portions of the tax dollars to religious organizations with whom they may or may not agree religiously, ideologically, or philosophically. 

Additionally, much of the money that are doled out by the state to the local schools comes from the federal government. These monies are perhaps impacted in a greater and more direct way by the ruling of the Supreme Court. In Pennsylvania, monies from the federal government are handled differently than monies coming from the state government. All money in Pennsylvania, however, comes from the state. In other words, the federal government gives its money to the states to handle. That is because education currently is deemed to be a state-run system. Much of the direction setting happens at the state level in policy that impacts all schools within its borders (Fowler, 2013). Obviously, some restrictions are to be abided by, such as religious freedoms, and that is where the challenge will come to state legislatures to write policy that addresses those freedoms while distributing funds.

Local Implications

The local school boards will see real impact from this ruling by the supreme court, though it may not be an immediate change. There will be change for the public-school systems, change for nonpublic non-religious schools, and for the private religious schools. Private religious schools have the growing hope and anticipation that funds not accessible before will now be obtainable. One of the key areas might be in the purchase of curriculum. For example, in Pennsylvania, religious schools cannot purchase curriculum with state monies because of the content of the curriculum. They can only purchase non-religious books, which often limits the schools to the purchase of library materials. Another important area that will impact religious schools will be access to funding for underprivileged and impoverished families. Once again, the religious tag currently prevents these families from receiving state assistance. 

Non-religious, nonpublic schools will also be impacted by this ruling. There are a tremendous number of religious schools in all the states. With all those religious schools having access to state funding, it stands to reason that non-religious schools will receive a smaller portion of funds do too the dilution of the pot of money. This will impact their ability to assist families with low income, or families that have multiple children in the school. While this seems harsh, it must be considered that the funds are more appropriately being spread across a variety of nonpublic schools. Charter schools could be impacted as well in some states. In Pennsylvania, charter schools could be clustered under the public-school system, having full access to all public funds; whereas, private charter schools may find access to monies from the state much more difficult to obtain. 

The public-school systems stand at great risk with this ruling in place from the court. For most states, the education system is set up in such a way that monies to run their school districts are funded through taxpayer dollars. These monies are distributed to local district school boards who use them to infuse education to students and by creating policy that defines what that education should look like. In fact, the only state not to have a school board is Hawaii (Fowler, 2013). Public school systems are at great risk to lose funding due to the addition of religious private schools dipping into the available funds. In some instances, this could happen through state distribution of funds across a broad range of schools. It is also possible to see voucher systems set up that could impact school districts where students desire to change locations for education. In these situations, it is possible to see public schools lose real budget dollars as students leave to attend private religious schools now funded through the government. 

The question is, how will this impact writing policy for schools? Certainly, private religious schools will request additional funding from their state. This will drive down costs for education and will increase attendance. It also will impact policy writing on financial aid, and the ability to help families who either cannot afford private school, or have multiple children driving up costs. Writing policy in the public schools will mean trimming budgets and finding ways to spread cost over a broad range of departments. For all these different schools, policy will definitely be impacted by fundraising. The need to find donors to support education will rise. 

Implications for the Classroom

The effects of this ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court will be felt in the classrooms of both public and private schools. First, for the private school classroom, there is a desperate need for additional funding to increase teacher salaries and obtain resources that will make the learning experience more impacting. Many of the technological advances are cost prohibitive for small but growing schools. It is often the case that a Christian school might be sharing use of one 3D printer, thus it never gets fully utilized in classrooms with core material. This is only replicated over and over with regard to technology, including sharing laptops, and not being able to take home devices. The addition of funds from the state could be what is needed to obtain those essential devices. Second, many families are split in sending one student to public and the other to private school. They just do not have the finances to afford tens of thousands of dollars in tuition, on top of the already burdensome school taxes paid for public school. With additional funds to private schools, many families might find a financial break available to use and bring a second or even third child into the private school. 

For the public-school classroom, the effects will be felt in classes shrinking as students leave to go to private institutions, or possibly classes grow in size due to teacher cutbacks. Overcrowded classes are a common problem in public schools that might only increase. Another area of concern in a public-school setting are the cuts in budget to specialty classes. This is frequently seen as schools choose to emphasize sports or fine arts. The lesser choice is placed on the table for elimination usually, and this leaves many families feeling like they are getting less quality in their child’s education experience. 

A Biblical Response

There are several impacts on the education world that we see from the Bible. These are examples that are given to us in scripture that show a proper way to engage our society; to interact with the culture around us. These are also examples that show education leadership in religious schools how they can interact with schools in the public room. Finally, Jesus Christ said the example for us, showing us why education is important and how to develop students. 

The first example Jesus set for educators is regarding the importance of money. More importantly, he set a tone for what should drive ministry. The parable of the talents is a great example for Christian leaders today in what they choose to do with the resources God gives to them. In Luke 19:11-27 (NASB95) Jesus shares a story with a lesson in it about servants who were given resources. Some chose to invest the resources, while one chose to hide the resource for fear of losing it. The lesson is that God desires his servants (his children) to use the resources he gives them. Christian leaders in schools have a responsibility to their school, and ultimately to their Lord, to make the most with the resources that are given to them. A great example from the private Christian School might be that they now receive state funding, and a portion of that is poured back into community efforts to partner with public schools. 

Another great example that we were given in scripture deals with the impact and impression we have on the world around us. Jesus has a crowd of followers and interested people sitting around him on a hillside, and he is teaching them. He refers to his followers as salt of the earth, and as light to the world. He explains that his followers have a very specific goal, and that is to point people to God. If his followers are not doing that, he reminds they are not being very effective (Matthew 5:13-16, NASB95). This is all about how Christian educators and leaders present themselves to the world and to the society they are a part of. Christian leaders need to ask themselves if they are separating themselves from the world, or if they are building bridges with the culture around them. It may be inevitable that a Christian private school needs to take state funding, but the steps taken with that money are vitally important. The steps taken to build bridges with local school districts may make a huge difference in the longevity and health in the relationship between the private and public schools. 

Future Steps

When one thinks about education and policy, the mind is quickly drawn to challenging and often controversial subjects. Funding for religious private institutions is definitely one of those subjects, and it will continue to be controversial for the foreseeable future. As is known by many, there are two sides to a coin. The ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court will open doors for many private Christian schools to get funding so desperately needed to survive in this education world. The other side of the coin reveals hardship as budgets are cut, and reduction in staffing as students leave for those religious private schools. 

This ruling will have an impact at all levels of policy. The local level, as mentioned, will see changes to the benefit and detriment of both sides of the issue. Though, some might argue competition is good for both sides. At the state level, policy will definitely set direction for public and private school budgets alike. Public schools will trim and cut, while Private school will look to expand and promote advantages. Finally, at the federal level, the administration will continue to shift on the subject depending on which political party is holding office. Legislators will set broad strokes of direction through policy, though perhaps some universal emphases may be stressed such as Common Core and No Child Left Behind. Impact can be felt at all levels, but the action taken by Christian leaders within the schools and school boards will set the temperature for how well their institutions are received by societies suddenly paying to support their religious causes.

References

deVogue, A., & Cole, D. (2020, June 30). Supreme Court opens door to state funding for religious schools. Cable News Network; Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/30/politics/espinoza-montana-religious-schools-scholarship-supreme-court/index.html

Forman, J., Jr. (2007). The rise and fall of school vouchers: A story of religion, race, and politics. Georgetown Law Faculty Publications and Other Works, 77. https://scholarship.law.georgetown.edu/facpub/77

Fowler, F. C. (2013). Policy Studies for Educational Leaders. [MBS Direct]. https://mbsdirect.vitalsource.com/#/books/9780133465853/

Geheb, P., & Owens, S. (2019). Charter School Funding Gap. Fordham Urban Law Journal, 46(1), 72–129. https://web-a-ebscohost-com.ezproxy.liberty.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=56b9ecbb-4c85-49ac-9243-1b28f130ce26%40sdc-v-sessmgr03

Owings, W., & Kaplan, L.S. (2019). Virginia. Journal of Education Finance 44(3), 334-336. https://www.muse.jhu.edu/article/722517.

U. S. Supreme Court. (2020, July 2). Espinoza et al. v. montana department of revenue et al.: Certiorari to the supreme court of montana. https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/19pdf/18-1195_g314.pdf

Williams, P. (2020, July 2). In 5-4 decision, Supreme Court rules states cannot ban public funding for religious schools: The ruling was written by Chief Justice John Roberts, who sided with the conservative justices. NBC Universal.  https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/supreme-court/5-4-decision-supreme-court-rules-states-cannot-ban-public-n1231389

Wolf, R. (2020, July 2). Supreme Court makes religious school education eligible for public aid. USA Today, Gannett Satellite Information Network, LLC. https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2020/06/30/supreme-court-religious-school-students-eligible-state-aid/5122877002/

Book Critique of Everyday Theology: by Kevin Vanhoozer

Vanhoozer, Kevin J., Charles A. Anderson, and Michael J. Sleasman, eds. Everyday Theology: How to Read Cultural Texts and Interpret Trends. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2007

A Brief Summary

     The book Everyday Theology: How to Read Cultural Texts and Interpret Trends,[1] by Vanhoozer, Anderson, and Sleasman, helps the reader to grasp the importance of living in this world, and in one’s culture, through theological lenses. This is not a biblical justification of the world’s posture, nor is it a pluralistic and inclusive approach to theology. It is an attempt to help the reader understand that the world is God’s. It fits into His design; into His plans. And He is still at work in this world both with the church and independent of it. It is to the immense benefit of the believer to understand how to glean from culture God’s handiwork. The believer can, and must, understand culture, for it is a way to more fully understand God’s will. Vanhoozer likens this to a performing a cultural exegesis, or delving into understanding cultural perspective[2]. It is how believers become more effective in spreading the Gospel. In some ways understanding culture better defines God’s principles. There is an appreciation through culture for what God has designed. And in many ways understanding culture defines the stark contrasts between a holy vision and mission, and the fallen-ness of the world and its sinful ways. 

     The reality is that believers today have compartmentalized the Gospel into an act of evangelism rather than a life-long journey with God. On the other side, believers today are fully immersed and invested in their cultures, to the point the cultures perhaps have greater influence on their lives than on their relationships with God. Vanhoozer shows how culture is where Christianity can find relevance, and significance. This is the ultimate understanding to grasp from Vanhoozer. By becoming culturally fluent and knowledgeable, the believer is able to have a cultural impact; leave his or her mark on the fabric of a society[3]. It is even better to say one can leave God’s mark on society. This is seen as the ability to understand a culture, how God is creating avenues of influence on that culture, and applying theological truth to that culture for a Godly benefit. Vanhoozer calls these believers, “Catalysts of the Kingdom”[4], who are not just citizens of both worlds, but are persuaders to move others into relationship with God. One must be careful in embracing this cultural fluency, for the lines can become fuzzy as one delves deep into cultural perception of theology. There can also be a tendency to micro-evaluate and micro-analyze to such an extent that one loses sight of the larger picture of how culture in a general sense fits together with Christianity. 

A Critique of Chapter 7 on Busyness 

     A critical place to examine culture is in the area of time and busyness. There is perhaps no greater onslaught by Satan, than to preoccupy the time of believers so their focus is removed from God. Not only that, the process of busyness culminates with stress that demands help, and the spiritual void created has individuals searching for remedies from anyone or anything except God. How American, to be defined by what one does, and how much one does, rather than who a person is, or the rationale that backs up who they are. It does the believer well to understand the contrasts between the standards the world projects as necessary and the standards and qualities God desires His followers to promote. 

     This chapter on busyness is written by Charles Anderson, in an attempt to help the reader understand the need to refocus one’s life on Godly values and on God’s sovereignty. The basic principle that Anderson communicates is that Christians can and should be the model example for the rest of culture in how to manage time and busyness.[5] This basic concept is founded in a few key principles that Anderson explains. First of all, time is a creation of God, and He is in control of it.[6] The cultural implications here are that a higher entity than ourselves is in control of what we strive so hard to control. The inevitable problem with a culture’s perspective on time is that it lacks a higher purpose; a purpose beyond its own self-seeking enterprises. God’s perspective on, and use of time, points to a greater purpose that the world looks to with eagerness.[7] Second, believers can portray busyness in a new light. Anderson calls this holy busyness.[8] A concept here is that believers can set a tone for a new kind of busyness regarding time given to things like Sunday church worship services, and time spent in routine bible study groups, and many other ways; time set aside for God. This becomes an example to the world that is looking for answers to their busyness and stress.[9] Anderson ends addressing the subject of busyness by bringing up the story of Mary and Martha from the Bible. His conclusions are that, “What she did was not wrong in and of itself, but only in comparison to what she should have done”.[10] 

     The problem with Anderson’s conclusions about busyness and time is that it is a creation against the wishes of God. A more appropriate way to explain this is to examine the work of Richard Swenson in his book Margin: Restoring Emotional, Physical, Financial, and Time Reserves to Overloaded Lives.[11] He details how this busyness first of all is a product of progress, and our culture’s continual and incessant push for more and more, quicker, faster, more frequent, and better. Second, the busyness has led to a lack of margin in people’s lives. Because of the lack of margin, there is no time allowed for God to speak into lives. In fact, the busyness even creates a void where God is not included even in the overload carried by so many stressed out individuals. Here he comes to the crux of the issue. All that stress created over progress is an effort ultimately in vain, for God does not see value in it like humans do. He claims, “God is not impressed with our wealth, education, or power. Nevertheless, we have labored eagerly in those fields.”[12] So back to understanding our culture- there is an intense craving from the world for what a wise believer with margin has attained. There is also a problem with Anderson’s postulation that there is virtue in busyness.[13] While one can argue the efforts of any person on behalf of the Kingdom and God’s direction, there is a real tension between efforts given with margin in place and even busyness in a Christian setting. In other words, a lack of margin, even in a Christian setting, and with Godly direction, can lead to efforts exclusive of God and stress due to not enough time spent abiding in Jesus. Anderson goes too far in defending Christian busyness, and there really is no need for it in the context of the book. It is actually counterintuitive to his argument of an example being set for the culture the believer lives in. 

     In Luke 10:38-42,[14] Martha was so frustrated with Mary; and why? Initially she voiced her annoyance with Mary not helping with the work, but in truth Martha wanted to be at Jesus’ feet beside her sister. Martha was feeling the chains of bondage to things of the world, and not a reliance upon her Savior, Jesus Christ. Of course, she expresses this frustration, compounding her sin by tearing down her sister. Contrary to what Anderson claims, Martha was in the wrong, and it was directly because of her not prioritizing Jesus in her heart. This hits close to home for me as I consider the busyness in my life. There are many things I have cut out of my schedule as I have read and contemplated the work by Swenson and the comments in Tammy Whitehurst’s article. Ultimately though, I will still produce the results that Martha did unless I fill the margin I have created in my life with a devotion to God, and a desire to depend completely upon Him. This is the example that Anderson talks about our culture looking to us for direction. It might come down to the world looking for a way to break the bondage and the patterns of a busyness addiction.[15] We are the light on a hill shining for all our culture to see. May it be God’s light shining through me; through us.

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[1] Kevin J. Vanhoozer, Charles A. Anderson, and Michael J. Sleasman, eds., Everyday Theology: How to Read Cultural Texts and Interpret Trends (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2007), 155.

[2] Ibid., 40.                   

[3] Vanhoozer, Everyday Theology, 55.

[4] Ibid., 56.

[5] Vanhoozer, Everyday Theology, 168.

[6] Ibid., 162-163.

[7] Ibid., 163.

[8] Ibid., 166-167.

[9] Ibid., 168.

[10] Vanhoozer, Everyday Theology, 171.

[11] Richard A. Swenson, M. D., Margin: Restoring Emotional, Physical, Financial, and Time Reserves to Overloaded Lives (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 2004).

[12] Ibid., 33.

[13] Vanhoozer, Everyday Theology, 160.

[14] Unless otherwise noted, all Scripture quotations or passages are taken from the, New American Standard Bible: 1995 Update (LaHabra, CA: The Lockman Foundation, 1995).

[15] Tammy Whitehurst, “Busyness is not a Spiritual Gift: ‘Wait’ is a Tough Word to Deal with in Today’s busy World,” Christian Bible Studies Transformed by the Truth (Christianity Today, November 6, 2012), accessed October 1, 2016, http://www.christianitytoday.com/biblestudies/articles/spiritualformation/busyness-is-not-spiritual-gift.html?start=2. 

Bibliography

Swenson, Richard A., M. D. Margin: Restoring Emotional, Physical, Financial, and Time Reserves to Overloaded Lives. Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 2004.

Vanhoozer, Kevin J., Charles A. Anderson, and Michael J. Sleasman, eds. Everyday Theology: How to Read Cultural Texts and Interpret Trends. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2007.

Whitehurst, Tammy. “Busyness is not a Spiritual Gift: ‘Wait’ is a Tough Word to Deal with in Today’s busy World.” Christian Bible Studies Transformed by the Truth. Christianity Today, November 6, 2012. Accessed October 1, 2016. http://www.christianitytoday.com/biblestudies/articles/spiritualformation/busyness-is-not-spiritual-gift.html?start=2.

Book Reflection: A Week in the Life of Corinth, by Ben Witherington, III - Lessons Learned from Christian Corinthian Life

     The book, A Week in the Life of Corinth, by Ben Witherington III, has presented an incredible image of what life in Corinth might have been like during the time of the growth of the church and the expansion of the Gospel. It also gives great opportunity to examine the ministry of the Apostle Paul and consider his impact on the Corinthian church. What stands out are the complexities in life that the Corinthian believers had to deal with as they faced great scrutiny and pressure. They were daily making choices to trust and allow God to solve problems that were outside their control. Another reality that comes to the surface is just how busy the Apostle Paul was, and how he had to find balance in life between ministry as a tentmaker, and as a church grower. It is no wonder he pulled key leaders around him to support him, and more importantly to support the cause of the Gospel. The reality portrayed in the story of the Corinthian church is that faith in God needs to be boldly lived out and not compromised. This same message is true for the church today.

Ministry of Paul
     Paul was the great missionary to the gentiles. In this book we see firsthand what that missions work might have looked like, and some of the concepts might also be revealing. A great first insight is that Paul was a tentmaker. He quite literally made tents for the society where he was living, as a way of supporting himself. The implications of this are that Paul’s ministry happened as a businessman who had connection and influence with many Corinthians who walked through the doors of his business, and he took full advantage of those opportunities. This also meant Paul had influence over those he partnered with in business; coworkers and employees. There were potentially tons of opportunities, and Paul let God use him through those interactions. This has great implications for today’s believer. One implication is that a follower of Jesus can have great impact in the workplace, for there are no doubt many people there who need to hear the Gospel. The workplace is a mission field. Another implication is that God’s work needs to happen even if a believer also has to work a separate job. Paul worked as a tentmaker but it did not keep him from opportunities to develop followers in all situations.

     A second insight from Paul’s missionary work in Corinth is that he allowed and encouraged other believers to lead the ministry. Paul considered that his job was to start ministry and develop leaders, not to do it all himself. We see through this story about Corinth, that it was in leaders like Priscilla and Aquila that the church was growing, and it was through Corinthians like Erastos and Camilla that the greatest impact was being felt in growth of the church. The implications for the church today is that there are different roles for leaders in the body of Christ. Some people in the church are designed to be teachers and shepherds, helping the local flock develop and grow as followers of Jesus living, fellowshipping and learning together. Other people are designed by God to be like the Apostle Paul, as individuals who infuse the Gospel message in new areas and new people, but then moving on to continue growing the church. It is quite evident how Paul kept in touch with the churches he started, but he was not their primary leader. We see this in the book even as he is in Corinth, yet struggles to gain the time to get letters out to the church at Thessalonike (Witherington 2012, 93). His focus and efforts had turned to the work at hand in Corinth. Interestingly, one must consider at this juncture how for us today the messages we read from his letters are then truly exhortations. Paul must have had the gift of exhortation in pointing out the needs in others and in churches to change and correct ways for the sake of the Gospel and spiritual growth.

Tension between Old and New
     A strong picture is painted through this book in how there is tension between old ways and practices and the new ways of the Gospel and the Christian church. There is evidence of this through the change from pagan ways to Christian ways. There is a strong image of just how prevalent the pagan ritualistic practices infiltrated life of the Corinthian. There were multiple Gods to be worshipped, and offerings of all different manner and for different purposes. The Character of Nicanor is used by the author to portray this tension, as he contemplates his own pagan practices and holds them up to the light of scrutiny against the new Christian practices. For example, Nicanor contemplates the differences in worship, and how drugs were used to create a mania in worshipping the goddess Delphi, and how the Egyptians segregated for worship of Isis and Serapis (Witherington 2012, 16). In contrast the Christians gathered in small groups discreetly to worship only one God, whom they considered the only true God. One also pictures the ritual process involved in the proconsul, Gallio, as he entered and worshiped Asclepius through offering and feasting (Witherington 2012, 67). In contrast to this, is the Lord’s Supper portrayed at the end of the story in which the Christians gathered together and fellowshipped, but then took time to commemorate the actions and sacrifice of Jesus Christ on the cross. On one hand the pagan belief is to present offering and feast in hopes of healing, and on the other hand the Christians remember and celebrate what was done for them that they could not begin to pay offering for; a gift of salvation through the grace of God.

     There was also tension between the Jewish traditions and the Christian teachings. There were many new converts to the Christian faith, and this included even leaders from within the Jewish Synagogue. Crispus was one of these leaders, as well as Stephanus and his family. As these leaders converted to Christianity, they left glaring holes within the leadership of the Jewish church, which in turn angered the remaining leader, Sosthenes. Sosthenes took action to protect the Synagogue from further depletion by bringing charges against Paul for disruption (Witherington 2012, 95-96). Many of these differences in practice centered on the worship of Jesus Christ and also the neglect of certain eating rituals. What becomes very evident through these tensions is that worship of the One True God brings with it distinction from other religions, and it is the love of God through the words and actions of His followers that bridges the gap to allow unbelievers to make the transition to a new belief. Nicanor is the perfect example for the reader of how this happens. He is not a Christian, and he worships many gods, but through the love exampled from the family of Erastos he is brought to a point of contemplation and consideration of faith in Jesus Christ as God.

The Power of the Gospel
     One of the most enlightening aspects of this book is the image of the Holy Spirit at work in the early church in Corinth. Time after time there are examples of how trust in God led to the protection of individuals, brought healing to people, and opened the hearts of those who were not believers. The power of God was moving through Corinth and specifically working through the words and actions of those in the church. This is a great example for today’s churches, as they can see how dependent the Corinthian believers were on God’s provision. People in today’s culture, especially in the United States, seem to be very self-sufficient, and this has infiltrated even the message that comes out from the church. How key it is for today’s Christian leaders to see an example of how relying on God brings greater results than self-sufficiency.

     One example of the power of God from the story in the book is how God used Paul to bring healing to Erastos. The character Erastos had been attacked by hooligans, and he was not recovering well from the attack. His family and household, who were believers, were praying for recovery and for God’s provision of health for him. As we see in the story, the Apostle Paul came to the house of Erastos and prayed for God to heal him, and God did just that. Immediately Erastos woke up and began to converse with his family. God answered the prayers of the faithful family, and He showed his power over the evil trying to bring demise into the life of a believer.

     Another example where we see the power of God is in the protection of Nicanor, who throughout the book is not a believer, but is connected with Erastos’ family who believe in Jesus Christ. Nicanor is a servant for the household who has very deep ties with the family; a trusted and loved friend as well. Though he does not believe in Jesus, he sees something different in the faith of the family that is a draw to him. He progresses through stages curiosity and understanding to a point eventually where he is confronted with the reality of a change to believe in God. In the process of this transformation, the devil tries to prevent his progress towards faith in Christ by bringing outside temptation in the form of incredible wealth by becoming the adopted son of a rich man. Through this proposal he is also intimidated and threatened to participate in the plan to bring the demise of his friend Erastos. Nicanor tries to solve his problem by hiring strongmen, but the reality is that only God can completely eradicate any chance of harm to him from this evil. Only God can provide a solution from another source to give him the resources he needs to thrive in society. The prayers of Erastos and his family are that Nicanor will believe in Jesus Christ, and that whatever problems his is facing will be resolved through God as well. So we see that God meets Nicanor’s needs through partnership with Erastos and his business, He gives Nicanor new friends to help him move his business forward, and He gives Nicanor boldness to stand against the temptations and intimidation, to do what is right.

     The culmination of these events in Nicanor’s life is seen in how the Holy Spirit moves in his heart at the end of the book. He is at a church gathering in the house of Erastos where he sees the genuineness and truthfulness of faith so many have in Jesus Christ. God speaks directly to him through the words of people in the room, and he is moved to a realization that his life is missing something that only Jesus can fill. Though Nicanor does not officially accept Jesus, he admits his need to understand him more, and he commits to learn more about him.

     These are great examples of how God works in the lives of his followers when they invite him into their daily routines; into every aspect of life. There is a level of dependency upon God that today’s believers should aspire to have. Erastos and his family invited God into every aspect of their decisions and it led to their success, but their interpretation of this was that God should be glorified through that success. It is also very heartening to see how God works out plans beyond the knowledge and grasp of his followers. The key example of this from the book is seen in the trial of the Apostle Paul, who must face accusations from an irate faction within the church. Paul really has little control over the outcome; in fact, things could potentially take a very bad outcome, but God intervenes and brings beneficial resolution beyond Paul’s planning and consideration. The issue of the trial is resolved before Paul even has a chance to present his defense. God needed the Apostle Paul to continue to be an effective tool in ministry to the people of Corinth. Finally, it is encouraging to see a visual image painted of the spiritual gifts used in the early church at Corinth. As they gather for worship at the end of the story, one pictures a group gathered fellowshipping and worshiping, along with speaking in tongues and prophecy for the benefit of proclaiming the Gospel to those who need to hear it. Nicanor’s life is transformed by God through communication from believers around him. Some are prophesying to him, Paul is teaching, many even lay hands on him in prayer. God uses the revelatory gifts to transform lives, and even today, lives can be transformed through these manners if one lets the Holy Spirit work in them.

Conclusion
     One of the greatest challenges in interpreting Scripture is bridging the cultural divide between today and the life of the author and the audience of a letter written two thousand years ago. Witherington’s book really helps bridge that gap so we can begin to glean from Scripture just what Paul was communicating to the Corinthian church and its believers. Through this, today’s believer can then begin to grasp what God is saying to them. The life of a Corinthian believer was complex, but not so unlike the complexities in the lives of believers today. What is very important to understand from them is that they took the necessary steps to incorporate God in all areas of their lives. They relied upon God for health, provision, courage, and wisdom; all things believers today need as well. Further, it was this penetration of the Gospel to the core of one’s life that enabled the church to grow and expand so rapidly. Today the church thinks apathy is so strong, and that people are cold to the Gospel, but the story coming from Corinth teaches us that this is not a new predicament. The way to have an impact in one’s community is to be bold and take a stand for what one believes, and then with God’s love begin to share the Gospel through word and action, in all areas of life. This is the kind of life that Paul was calling the Corinthians to live, and the kind of life we are called to live as well.

Bibliography
Witherington, Ben, III. A Week in the Life of Corinth. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2012.